ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE YUGOSLAVIA CONFLICT

3. Background

The military action in Yugoslavia started before the NATO commenced its air strikes on March 24, 1999. Prior to these strikes, the deployment of forces in and around Kosovo had already taken place. Also, a number of refugees had been moving within the province itself. However, the air strikes by NATO’s air forces on industrial and military targets has attracted the most attention. The possible negative impact on the environment from damage to these installations is the subject of this paper.

The environmental outcomes of the conflict, however, are not confined to the territory of Yugoslavia itself. Neighbouring countries may also have been negatively affected by the military actions. Albania and Macedonia have both been swamped with hundreds of thousands of refugees. The camps associated with these present not only a humanitarian management task, but also an environmental management task. For Romania and Bulgaria, who hold common borders with Yugoslavia and share water and air resources, the possibility of transboundary pollution passing along the Danube is the most obvious concern.

In the following sections, the background to these threats is highlighted country-by-country. The reason for the geographical division is to define the most pressing problems for each nation, so that the possible causes are not simplified and grouped inaccurately. The effects of these threats are covered in Part 4 and future risks in Part 5.

3.1. Yugoslavia

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia covers an area of 102,173 square kilometres, with a diverse landscape, high biodiversity (for details see Stevanović, V., Vasić, V. eds. 1995) and a developed legal framework of environmental protection (Milićević, G. 1995). Although Yugoslavia represents only 0.07 percent of the Earth’s land area, or 2.1 percent of Europe’s, it encompasses all European biomes, or 5 of the total of 12 terrestrial biomes on Earth. According to IUCN-WMC criteria, the territory of Yugoslavia, together with mountainous part of Bulgaria, represents a European centre of biodiversity – one of six in Europe and 153 world-wide. Yugoslavia is home to 38.93 percent of the total number of vascular plant species in Europe, 51.16 percent of European fish species, 74.03 percent of European bird species and 67.61 percent of European mammal species. Protected natural features in Yugoslavia, which cover 4 percent of state territory (see appendix), represent localities of highest concentration of plant, animal and all other species.

Montenegro (the southern Republic of Yugoslavia) has declared itself to be the world’s first "environmental state," pledging to live more harmoniously with nature. The challenge it has set itself is a difficult one, with tourist developments along the coast threatening saltwater estuaries and industry causing pollution of the air, soil and water (Microsoft Encarta World Atlas 1998 Edition).

This environment has been exposed to bombing by NATO forces since March 24, 1999. At the time this assessment was prepared, the shooting part of the conflict appeared to have ceased, but the bombing lasted for 78 days. It is estimated that more than 1,200 aircraft made about 25,000 flights from the onset of the bombing in Yugoslavia. During these flights, about 17,000 attacks (with 700 in one night alone, May 14, 1999) were made against designated targets all around Yugoslavia – notably the industrial areas of Serbia and its province Kosovo and Metohia. Among them, a large number of industrial facilities were attacked – more than 80 before June 5 (see appendix).

Bomb-damaged Sites that Pose an Environmental Threat

Pancevo industrial complex: The industrial complex at Pancevo (population approximately 150,000) is located 15 kilometres north-east of Belgrade. It includes the Pancevo Nitrogen Processing Plant (a factory manufacturing nitrogen fertilisers), the Pancevo Refinery and the Pancevo Petrochemical Plant. All three bombed plants are within the eight-kilometre-square industrial zone. The nearest residential buildings are less than 150 metres away from the nitrogen processing plant.

Present in the plants are ethylene-dichloride, ethylene, chlorine, chlorine-hydrogen, propylene and vinyl chloride monomers. These fluids have been released into the atmosphere, water and soil due to bomb damage and now pose a serious threat to human health in general and to ecological systems locally and in the broader Balkan region. The soil at the Petrochemical Complex was soaked with ethylene-dichloride.

All chemicals that had been released in water were found to be present in the surface waters, as well as the compounds resulting from their reactions. A large number of people have been poisoned, injured and/or evacuated. According to Yugoslav estimates, some 70,000 people have been endangered locally.

Novi Sad Oil Refinery: Damage to the oil refinery in Novi Sad, because of its location at the very bank of the Danube River in the open Pannonian plain, poses a particular threat to the environment. Yugoslav reports state that hundreds of tonnes of oil and petroleum products have leaked into the Danube as a result of air strikes. Considerable pollution has been, and is being, detected in the air and in other media of the environment (water, soil and biota), and the inhabitants from the nearby area have been evacuated. More serious environmental damage is expected when the Danube reaches a higher level.

Transformer stations: Several badly damaged transformer stations have released toxic pyralene transformer oils (PCBs in the case of the town of Kragujevac). Following the attack on a large transformer station in Belgrade, 150 tonnes of the special transformer-oil leaked through a canal system 3 kilometres from Belgrade. The oil reached the Rakovica Stream and the Topcider River, tributaries of the Sava River. Yugoslav authorities tried for seven days to collect the oil from the surface of the river and to prevent the contamination of the Sava River. Success was only partial.

3.2. Albania

The crisis in Kosovo affected Albania mostly through the refugee flow into country; military troops, operating in Albania as aid distributors and camp managers; and, only slightly, by the military incidents in villages on the Kosovo-Albania border. Monitoring of transboundary pollution threats is nearly non-existent. As a result, it is difficult to assess the possible impacts.

The flow of refugees started on the third week of March, reaching its peak by the end of March and beginning of April. By the end of April, the flow of refugees was reduced to groups of hundreds. The Albanian government and NATO troops helped to move the refugees in camps and collective centres inside Albania. By May 21, 1999, the following figures were presented for the number of refugees and camps in Albania:

ACCOMMODATION TYPE NO. OF OCCUPANTS PROJECT CAPACITY NO. OF SITES
Tented camps 68,909 200,360 49
Collective centres 91,323 151,818 257
Host Families 305,592 Unknown N/A
Totals 465,824 323,978 306

Source of data on refugees: the Emergency Management Group figures for May 21, 1999 (established by the Albanian Government, international and local NGOs operating in this field).

The environmental effects expressed in this material are related mostly to the refugees’ impact on the environment, rather than to the other interventions, for which the data is either missing or not public. Initially, of course, environmental problems were not considered as a priority of the first moment. Food, shelter and medical care were the main concerns of all government agencies and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) involved in helping refugees. As weeks pass, and the summer weather proves to be unusually hot and dry, environmental concerns are taking a higher rank in the priority list. These concerns include health problems in camps, destruction of soil fertility and structure, damage to national parks and protected areas and waste water and sewage problems.

3.3. Bulgaria

As far as threats posed to Bulgaria’s environment, transboundary pollution is the main concern caused by the conflict in Yugoslavia. Bulgaria has a border with Yugoslavia - but not Kosovo so the refugee problem was limited - sits down-stream from that country on the Danube River and is on the downwind side of prevailing winds. As such, the monitoring system provides the best indication of actual environmental impacts or threats.

In Bulgaria, all components of the environment are monitored by the National System for Environmental Monitoring (NASEM), which is managed by the National Center for Environment and Sustainable Development (NCESD) of the Ministry of Environment and Waters (MEW). There are some other sources of information related to environment, such as Hygienic-Epidemiological Inspectorates of the Ministry of Health and the National Hydrological and Meteorological Institute (NHMI). But the data provided by them are included in the information which is processed and published by NASEM.

The data on air quality, water quality and radiation are published by the NCESD in quarterly and annual bulletins, which are distributed to the authorities and are available to the public on a fee basis. This data was used to make the assessment of the environmental impact that the Yugoslav conflict had on Bulgaria.

3.4. FYR Macedonia

Since the start of the conflict in Yugoslavia, many ethnic Albanians from Kosovo entered FYR Macedonia as refugees. The most visible environmental impact of the conflict for FYR Macedonia has been this influx of refugees and the need to accommodate them. From the middle of March 1999 until now, almost 270,000 refugees have entered the country. So far, eight refugee camps have been established. The active camps, and some pertinent specifications, are as follows:
  • Radusa Refugee Camp, located in the community of Kondovo, northwest of Skopje, is 1.33 hectares, with a capacity of 2,000 refugees, who would have an annual water consumption of 35,879,500 litres and produce approximately 220 tonnes of garbage per year.
  • Senokos Refugee Camp, located in the community of Nagotino, southwest of Skopje, with an area of 1.2 hectares and a capacity for 1,500 refugees in 252 tents, has water and waste disposal needs similar to Radusa.
  • Bojane Refugee Camp, located in the community of Saraj, west of Skopje, is situated on 4.5 hectares and has a capacity of 4,000 refugees in 600 tents, with potential annual water needs of 71,759,000 litres and potential garbage production of approximately 500 tonnes per year.
  • Neprosteno Refugee Camp, located in the community of Tearce, west of Skopje, is situated on 5.6 hectares, and has a capacity of 5,000 refugees in 833 tents, with potential annual water needs of 71,759,200 litres and garbage production of approximately 500 tonnes per year.
  • Cegrane Refugee Camp, located in the community of Cegrane, southwest of Skopje, has a total area of 17.2 hectares, a capacity for 50,000 refugees in 8,334 tents, potential annual water consumption of 119,603,200 and potential garbage production of approximately 520 tonnes per year.
  • Stenkovec I Refugee Camp and Stenkovec II Refugee Camp are located northeast of Skopje, with a territory of 20 hectares and capacity for over 50,000 refugees. Other data on these two camps are not available.

Aside from the above-mentioned camps, there was also a camp at Blace, north of Skopje near the border with Yugoslavia, which acted as a reception centre, but it is now closed. When assessing negative environmental impact of the conflict in Yugoslavia, these camps remain the focus of attention. As with Albania the amount of monitoring of transboundary pollution is limited, though there appear to be some measurable contaminants.

3.5. Romania

In Romania, much like Bulgaria, the threat of transboundary pollution appears to be the area of greatest concern when assessing the Yugoslav conflict’s potential to impact the environment. Romania has a contiguous border with Yugoslavia. The two countries share the Danube River for part of its course, and the river continues downstream into Romania for a further part of its course. When looking for environmental impacts, therefore, it is important to assess transboundary air or water pollution.

Information regarding the environmental impact of the war, and specifically quantitative data that makes comparisons with previous years, was requested from the environmental protection agencies in the potentially affected areas (southwestern Romania). The same was also requested of the Ministry of Environment, Monitoring Department. Most agencies responded to the request; however, the data quality they provided is poor in most cases. The agencies acknowledge that they do not have either the required equipment or the needed reagents to test for many pollutants. This situation made it difficult for them to provide good quality data. Quite often, in their desire to provide some data, agencies in Romania have used expired reagents or old equipment. In comparison with the Bulgarian results therefore the reliability of data should be questioned.

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