ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE YUGOSLAVIA CONFLICT

4. Environmental effects

4.1. Yugoslavia

4.1.1. Water

Initially, water pollution was estimated to be a potentially chronic problem, but also less acute than that of air-borne pollutants. However, it would be a mistake to underestimate the potential damage caused by the oil and oil derivative pollution in the rivers – as well as potential river pollution from acids, alkalis and phenols. Usually, oil flows away, acids and alkalis are quickly diluted and phenols hydrolyse. But the pollution of ground water is more serious, because ground water has a limited capacity for self-purification. According to the Yugoslav Federal MOE, reservoirs on large rivers (like the Danube) are in special danger, because the process of sedimentation is increased due to the slower flow of the river. This especially holds true for the Iron Gate’s reservoirs (Djerdap I and Djerdap II at the Yugoslavia/Romania border).

Surface waters:
The Danube River was undoubtedly polluted with oil, oil derivatives and various other harmful chemicals due to attacks on river-side facilities. After the bombing of the vinyl chloride monomers plant in Pancevo on the night of April 18, 1999, more than 1,000 tonnes of ethylene dichloride and almost 1,000 tonnes of a solution containing 33 percent hydrogen chloride were released directly into the Danube River. Furthermore, about 3,000 tonnes of natrium hydroxyde, and tens of tonnes of liquid chlorine (Cl2) were released (Glas Javnosti, May 19, 1999). It seems highly likely that some quantity of mercury was released into the environment after destruction of the chlorine-alkaline electrolysis plant in Pancevo, where about 100 tonnes of mercury is stored during the plant’s normal operation process. As a consequence of toxins released after repeated bombings, the Yugoslav authorities have prohibited fishing on the Danube downstream from Pancevo (TiM, May 14, 1999).

Although a flowing river eventually cleanses itself by bottom sediments, toxic substances accumulate in the sediment and can remain there. If toxins are not degraded, they can be released again by a change in the physical and chemical properties of the water, such as alterations engendered by ionic forces, a change in pH, oxidation reduction or the presence of complexing agents. (P. Polić, 1999).

Groundwater:
It is estimated that groundwater supplies 90 percent of Serbia’s domestic and industrial needs. The long-term pollution of underground waters is therefore very serious. This problem is compounded by the limited self-purification capacity of groundwater. There is concern that "Makiš", Belgrade's main aquifer, and many other wells, are in great danger of eventual pollution from spills created by the bombing in Yugoslavia. Pollutants can reach underground waters from the surface or by soaking through the bank sediments of polluted rivers. (P. Polić, 1999).

Details on chemicals that have been released due to damage to industrial plants

  • Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Because PCBs are still used in many transformers, these substances may be spilled by the destruction of any transformer station – whether it is part of an energy-producing section in an oil refinery or industrial plant, or part of the transmitting tower at Mt. Avala. It is estimated that one litre of the PCB Pyralene pollutes one billion litres of water. Even in those facilities where Pyralene was replaced by permitted liquids, the PCB was, in most cases, not destroyed or neutralised but only stored somewhere in the factory yard, so that the barrels were exposed to potential damage by bombing. (P. Polić, 1999)
  • Oil Spills: As the result of strikes on Pancevo, a large quantity of oil leaked into the Danube (about 50 tonnes of emulsion), through common equipment for the treatment of wastewater (which was not working). A few hundred tonnes of oil and petroleum products leaked into the Danube from the destroyed oil refinery in Novi Sad, when 18 oil tanks were simultaneously hit. Fishing is now forbidden in the vicinity of these areas and a large quantity of dead fish was observed in an area 30-40 km downstream from Pancevo.
  • Ammonia (NH3): More than 100 tonnes of liquid ammonia leaked directly into Danube from the "Azotara" Nitrogen Processing Plant at Pancevo.
  • Ethylene Dichloride (EDC): During air strikes, more than 1,000 tonnes of EDC leaked into the Danube, through a connection channel from the Pancevo petrochemical complex. According to the Yugoslav Federal MOE, concentrations of several grams per litre of ethylene-dichloride were found in the river. EDC was also released after bombing of the vinyl chloride monomers plant in Pancevo on the night of April 18, 1999. It is estimated that 1,400 tonnes of EDC have been released directly into the Danube watercourse.
  • Natrium hydroxide (NaOH): A few thousand tonnes of a 40 percent solution of NaOH leaked into the Danube through a connection channel from the Pancevo petrochemical complex.
  • Hydrogen chloride (HCl): Nearly a thousand tonnes of a 33 percent solution of HCl leaked into the Danube during attacks on Pancevo.

4.1.2. Air

One of the dangers of air pollution is the speed with which it can affect large populations. Belgrade, with roughly 2 million inhabitants, was faced with a potentially serious health emergency on April 18, 1999, after the bombing of the petrochemical complex in Pancevo. If the wind had been blowing from the east-northeast, all the air-borne toxic substances from the Pancevo industrial zone (such as phosgene and vinyl-chloride) and poisonous by-products of burning fuel would have blown into Belgrade. However, the wind was westerly, and at times strong. This wind, coupled with rain, helped in the reduction of air pollution (phosgene hydrolysis, yielding carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid). (P. Polić, 1999) To date it is almost impossible to evaluate the qualitative and quantitative effects of downwind pollution – and pollution of soil, water and plant life – and those indirect influences caused by chlorination and other chemical reactions.

Details of pollutants that are reported to have been released into the atmosphere

  • Radioactive pollutants: This is one area of controversy related to NATO actions. Reports indicate that NATO has used depleted uranium (DU) ammunition in the conflict. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences in Vinca, Belgrade, has surveyed the remnants of exploded bombs and claims to have established the presence of uranium. NATO representatives have confirmed the use of depleted uranium ammunition in shells carried by A-10 planes. (Tanjug, Belgrade, May 17) According to reports, each A-10 Thunderbolt 30mm cannon anti-tank shell contains 275 grams of DU (10.1 MBq) (CRL, 1999). The depleted uranium is radioactive, and upon impact, the material may turn into a mobile aerosol. Aside from emitting alpha radiation, uranium is chemically toxic.
  • Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM): The Pancevo VCM plant ("Petrohemija") was completely destroyed and more than 1,000 tonnes of VCM was released. The Times of London quoted the Serbian Environment Minister as saying that the amount of carcinogenic matter in the air over Pancevo was 7,200 times above the permitted level. (Environment News Service, April 19, 1999) According to a press release from Belgrade’s Institute of Public Health, a VCM concentration of 10,600 times above the permitted level was recorded a few kilometres away from the bombed plant in Pancevo. (Glas Javnosti, May 19, 1999, pg. 5) This measurement has been confirmed by the Yugoslav Federal MOE. The polluted clouds created by the bombing at Pancevo carried the products of combustion of VCMs (phosgene, chlorine, chlorine oxides and nitrogen oxides), as well as ammonia, petroleum and petroleum products. The VCM storage facility burned for hours, creating a whitish smoke and clouds that were moving westwards, toward the outskirts of Belgrade (Borca, Ovca and Padinska Skela). The cloud was carried by low air currents and merged with another cloud that had been formed when a storehouse full of fertilizer was hit. Increased concentrations of nitrogen oxides (10 milligrams per cubic metre) and phosgene (2 parts per million) were also registered. Secondary chemical reactions caused by released VCM represents an extra concern.
  • Chlorine (Cl2): The toxic gas chlorine was released after bombing of the petrochemical complex in Pancevo on the night of April 18, 1999.
  • Products from incomplete combustion: Pollution resulting from the burning of oil, petrol, crude oil, motor oil, tires, asphalt and other materials at extremely high temperatures – as well as pollution caused by the explosive charges of different missiles – can include the products of incomplete combustion. Some of the products of incomplete combustion are: carbon monoxide; aldehydes, which take part in photochemical reactions; and soot, which absorbs polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. According to V. Janjić, 1999, quantities of those products have reached over 1,000 million cubic metres in the atmosphere. Modern buildings incorporate many synthetic materials in their structure, furnishings and fittings. Consequently, a modern building produces many pyrotoxins when burning. One night of bombing in the centre of Belgrade produced a cloud that did not disperse until the late morning hours.
  • Soot and particulates: Soot was released in enormous quantities during the burning of oil refineries in Novi Sad and Pancevo and the burning of large oil depots, such as Smederevo. According to the Yugoslav Federal MOE, during the Pancevo bombing a huge cloud of thick smoke was formed. It was about 1.5 kilometres wide, three kilometres high and 20 kilometres long and left a sediment of soot, ash and dust. The latter part of this cloud was blown westward, where it came down to the ground about 15 km from the burning factory. This cloud changed direction in the following 10-day period. In the first five days, concentrations of SO2, soot and total chlorocarbons increased by four-to-eight times in relation to the limit values. This was especially the case with unburned contents of oil: benzene, toluene, xylenes, carbon monoxide, mercaptanes and formaldehyde.
  • Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Nitrogen oxides are released by jet aircraft, as well as by burning oil. Since the beginning of the air campaign, NATO jets put in more than 150,000 flight hours. At the same time, large quantities of nitrogen oxides were produced by the destruction of oil refineries and fuel depots all around Yugoslavia. (SES, April 15, 1999)
  • Hydrofluoric acid (HF): According to unconfirmed data, hydrofluoric acid had been released during destruction of the production line of the "Prva Iskra" chemical plant in Baric on April 19, 1999. Fortunately, most of the HF was controlled and eliminated before the strikes.
  • Heavy metals: Heavy metals are also extremely dangerous and potentially difficult to contain. For example, mercury, in its methylated form, can be transported for thousands of kilometres. Other heavy metals, including cadmium, chromium, copper and zinc, were released after the destruction of industrial facilities, where these metals were used in normal operating processes (e.g. electroplating shops in Kragujevac, Valjevo and Cacak).
  • Acid rain: Large quantities of released carbon dioxide, sulphurdioxide, nitrogen oxides and ammonia, have caused the appearance of acid rain. The smoke cloud that appeared following the main Pancevo strike was rinsed by heavy rain for several hours after it was formed.

4.1.3. Soil

Due to precipitation, much of the air pollution described above will eventually reach the soil and become a part of the further bio-chemical cycle. Bombing has also created deep craters in the humus layer, which will take years to recuperate. According to estimates a 240 kilogram bomb makes a crater that is 4 metres deep and 8 metres in diameter – or 50 square metres in surface area. The total surface of the craters created by the three-month bombing campaign has yet to be estimated. Not only are the craters unusable, but so is the land around the craters. The destruction of the upper layers of the soil means the destruction of its flora and fauna. The natural regeneration of this layer could last thousands of years. It takes from 1,500 to 7,400 years for nature to produce a 20 centimetre thick upper layer of soil. Within 100 years, the surface layer of soil naturally grows only 0.5-2 centimetres. (V. Janjić, 1999)

4.1.4. Biodiversity/Nature

Direct consequences of the conflict on biodiversity and the natural areas of Yugoslavia include:
  • Physical destruction of habitats and plant and animal populations due to bombing all over Yugoslavia and land war activities in the region near the border between Albania and Yugoslavia.
  • Physical destruction of habitats and populations of flora and fauna because of chemical contamination, particularly of water ecosystems, that occurred as a result of the destruction of chemical, oil and electric-power installations. Pollution in the Danube River has already caused a marked increase in fish mortality. Fishing is officially forbidden in one section of the Danube beneath Pancevo. The lower course of the Danube is inhabited by fish registered in Yugoslavia as either endangered or vulnerable species. Water contamination may increase the risk that certain species – such as acinpenser nudiventris, acipenser sturio, zingele streber streber, zingel zingel, ubmra krameri – will become extinct in the region of Yugoslavia.
  • Disturbance of populations caused by the physical impact of explosions, as well as the accompanying noise, along migratory routes. Detonations along migratory routes have already caused a decrease in the populations of many animal species, especially among large mammals and birds. The high quantity of plane flights in the air space above Yugoslavia, and all of south and south-eastern Europe, where there are many significant migratory corridors, may have negative consequences for a this years reproductive season of many migratory bird species.

Protected areas:
In Yugoslavia, approximately 1,800 especially valuable natural sites enjoy various degrees of protection. The total area of protected and valuable natural areas amounts to over 400,000 hectares or approximately 4 percent of Yugoslavia’s territory. Especially valuable are nine national parks located in all of the three geographic macro-regions: the Pannonian plains, the mountainous regions and the coast. These parks include Fruska Gora, Djerdap (the Iron Gates), Kopaonik, Tara, Mt. Sara, Biogradska Gora, Durmitor, Lovcen and Lake Skadar. (Mandić, R. 1999)

Under UNESCO’s criteria, Yugoslav sites included in the List of World Natural Heritage are: the Tara River Canyon, the Kotor-Risan Bay and the Durmitor National Park. (Stevanović, V., Vasić, V. eds. 1995)

Numerous sites of national and international significance, as well as areas inhabited by rare, endangered species and protected plant and animal species, have been bombed. The habitats of the highest concentration of rare and endangered species in Serbia (Stevanović, V. (Ed.), in press) were heavily impacted by the war, according to the Serbian Ecological Society (SES 1999b). It is impossible to make an exact evaluation of the present consequences for ecosystems and biodiversity, but it is clear that military actions have increased the risk of extinction of numerous species.

Other Endangered Areas:

  • The border regions near Albania and FYR Macedonia (Ćafa Morina, Gorožup, Djeneral Janković-Kacanik, Preševo-Bujanovac, Slavujevac-Rujen Planina Mt.) are inhabited by some 20 plant species whose risk of extinction has been increased by NATO, VJ and KLA activities. Particularly endangered are the species crocus rujanensis, dianthus behriorum, genista nyssana, gentiana nopscae, solenanthus krasniqii and tulipa scardica whose sparse populations inhabit these regions exclusively.
  • The area around the town of Nis is one of the regions that has been exposed to the heaviest destruction. Particularly endangered are the species: hypecoum pseudograndiflorum, nonea pallens and stachys milanii whose sparse populations inhabit these regions exclusively.
  • The area around the city of Novi Sad is another region exposed to some of the worst destruction. This region is inhabited by some 15 species whose risk of extinction has increased.

In the above mentioned areas, which represent only a part of the territory exposed to bombing, there are approximately 100 critically endangered and rarest plant species and approximately 70 animal species that are equally at risk.

Important areas threatened by the bombing

Natural areas affected by bombing, and some of the rare species in these areas, include:
  • Kopaonik Mt. National Park, which includes the localities of Pancićev Vrh, top Suvo Rudište top, Duboka and Velika Gobelja top, was hit by at least nine bombings. Among the most endangered and most significant species are plants: cardamine pancicii, sempervivum kopaonikense and viola kopaonikense as well as the insect otiorinchus kopaonikensis, whose sparse populations inhabit exclusively the peaks of Kopaonik.
  • Fruška Gora Mt. National Park, which includes Cot, Iriški Venac, Beocin, Rakovac, Vrdnik, etc., sustained at least 20 bombings. The most significant species are Pannonian endemites crepis pannonica, epipactis borbasii, paeonia banatica and suaeda pannonica.
  • Tara Mt. National Park, which includes Crveni Potok, Mitrovac and Perućac, sustained bombing that endangered the strict reservation of picea omorica at Crveni potok, which represents the unique habitat of this rare, and endomorelict Balkan species. Apart from picea omorica in the region of Tara there are also: cladium mariscus, dryopteris cristata, and waldesteinia trifolia.
  • Sarplanina Mts. National Park, which includes Brezovica, Dragaš and Gornje Selo, sustained at least four bombings. It is particularly important to single out the species achillea alexandri regis, cerastium neoscardicum, colchicum macedonicum, crepis macedonica, fritillaria macedonica, sideritis scardica, silene nikolicii, tulipa scardica, whose sparse populations inhabit the region of Šara Mt. Exclusively.
  • Vršacke Planine Mts. Natural Reserve includes a TV transmitter that was destroyed by bombing. On the rocks under the destroyed transmitter is the only habitat of the species minuartia frutescens in Serbia, which has a population of 20. Also in this reserve is Vršacki Breg hill, the only known habitat of the endemic species Barbarea lepuznica in Yugoslavia.
  • Wetland habitats, are found in Koviljsko-Petrovaradinski Rit marsh, Palić Lake Reserve and along the Sava river at Makiš, Baric and Obrenovac. These are inhabited by many endangered plants. The rarest and most significant ones are: hottonia palustris, achillea ptarmica, aldrovanda vesiculosa, asparagus pseudoscaber and eryngium planum. Apart from water plants, numerous endangered or vulnerable bird species live here, including: plegadis falcinellus, platalea leucorodia, milvus milvus, burhinus oedicnemus, hippolais pallida, hippolais olivetorum, gavia stellata, gavia arctica, botaurus stellaris, ixobrichus minutus, anas querquedula, aythya nyroca, mergus albellus, milvus migrans, pandion haliaetus, rallus aquaticus, himantopus himantopus, recurvirostra avosetta, limicola falcinellus, numenius arquata, gelochelidon nilotica, chlidonias hybridus, acrocephalus paludicola, haliaeetus albicilla, crex crex, etc. In these habitats the following amphibians are listed in Yugoslavia as endangered or vulnerable species: triturus cristatus, triturus dobrogicus, rana arvalis wolterstorffi and emys orbicularis. There are also, many local endemic invertebrates, such as: ophiogomphus serpentinus, lycaena dispar, graphoderus bilineatus, chelosia griseifacies , colaropyxidia stankovicii, lecane apatinensis, lepadella mica, testudinella pannonica, chirocephalus brevipalpis, imnadia banatica, imnadia cristata, imnadia panonica, eoleptestheria spinosa, eoleptestheria spinosa magna, eoleptestheria spinosa minor and leptestheria saetosa.

4.1.5. Human Environment/Health

Human environment:
Great damage has occurred through the destruction of villages in Kosovo by the VJ and para-militaries. This is likely to require major reconstruction before areas can become habitable again. Residential areas in all major cities around Yugoslavia have been struck by military action from the VJ and NATO. The downtown area of Priština has been destroyed; central-downtown Belgrade has been hit several times, and the damage includes government buildings. Residential areas in towns of Novi Sad, Pancevo, Niš Ćuprija, Aleksinac, Kragujevac, Valjevo, Surdulica, Kraljevo, Jagodina all sustained damage.

Health effects:
Generally, the state of health of the Yugoslav population in 1996, 1997 and 1998 was relatively satisfactory compared to the period of 1992-1995, when international sanctions were in effect. However, since the beginning of the conflict the general state of health has deteriorated. The problem is especially pronounced in the following areas:

  • Civilian causalities: It is estimated that more than 1,400 civilians have been killed in Yugoslavia by air strikes. There are no definite figures for those killed by Yugoslavian forces in Kosovo, and no figures on military personnel killed, but from early indications the total of these figures will be several times more than the number of reported air strike victims.
  • Impact of pollutants: The release of the above-described toxic compounds poses a threat to the civilian population. For example, more than 100,000 citizens of the Pancevo region (Belgrade’s northern suburb) were endangered after the bombing of the neighbouring petrochemical complex on April 15 and 18. However, there are no reports about the number of people affected, or the long-term impact of this pollution. These numbers can only be ascertained by long-term monitoring of the population.
  • Loss of basic services: Graphite bombs caused short circuits on power lines and the collapse of the electric power system of Yugoslavia. The result was severe problems in obtaining elementary needs (health, hygiene, etc) of the entire population. The problems have enlarged since main transformer stations and main long-distance power lines were destroyed. Those most severely affected are patients in hospitals and residents who live in the high-rise buildings.
  • Damage to food supply: Agricultural products can be contaminated by pollution in rivers, groundwater and precipitation from all the toxic substances mentioned above. (P. Polić, 1999) There is a risk that these products will reach consumers. Dr. Luka Radoja, agronomist, notes that the conflict happened during the planting season for many crops: corn, sunflower, soy, sugar beet and other vegetables. The planting of 2.5 million hectares of land was halted. The lack of fuel for agricultural machines will also have catastrophic results on food production.

4.1.6. Transboundary

It is obvious that the environmental consequences of war activities in Yugoslavia are not confined to state boundaries. The pollution of rivers in Yugoslavia will almost certainly affect the neighbouring downstream countries in the coming weeks, months or years, and the wind will disperse toxic clouds over the entire region. At the moment it is not possible to obtain real facts on the quantity and level of contamination in Yugoslavia. However, from experience, it can be anticipated that the following areas are the most likely to transboundary environmental effects:
  • Pancevo incident: Toxic clouds released after the bombing of combined petrochemicals, fertilizer and oil plants in the Belgrade suburb of Pancevo contain vinyl chloride monomers, chlorine, hydrochloric acid and phosgene. These toxins are expected to be carried into Romania and Bulgaria and down the Danube River into the Black Sea (Environment News Service, April 19, 1999. According to BBC News (April 19, 1999), workers at the petrochemical complex also decided to release tons of carcinogenic ethylene dichloride into the Danube to avoid the risk of an explosion.
  • Prahovo incident: After the May 15, 1999, bombing of the oil depots in Prahovo, in the vicinity of the Yugoslavia/Bulgaria border, heavy rain in Bulgaria the next night was black and tainted by soot and hydrocarbons, according M. Sci Milivoje Ilić, head of district. (Politika, May 18, 1999).
  • Products of fuel combustion: Fuel used by aircraft contains a large number of highly-toxic substances (ammonium-perchlorat, nitroglycerine, nitro-cellulose, polybutadien, polyurethane, polyvinyl-chloride, polystyrene, polyacrolyte, lead-salycilate, lead-ethylhexoat, lead-stearata, metal nitrates, metal perchlorate and fluorine compounds) whose combustion is toxic and carcinogenic. Combustion of these substances produces, nitrogenous oxides, chloric compounds and other harmful substances that can destroy forests and vegetation and have a direct effect on human health as well. Harmful fluorine radicals are formed as a result of combustion of fuel stabilisers together with lead.
  • Damage to the ozone layer: Numerous flights by jet aircraft over a period of more than eight weeks will have negative effects on the already depleted ozone layer.
  • Radioactivity: When armaments with depleted uranium are used, they produce uranium oxides (U3O8 UO2) as well as the gases radium and radon, among others. Oxide particles are from 0.5 to 5 microns in size and can be carried by the wind over several hundred kilometers. Depending on the wind direction, these particles can be spread to neighbouring countries.
  • Water: Surface waters that were polluted as a consequences of the bombing belong to the catchment area of the Black Sea, as well as the Aegean and Adriatic seas, which means that all the above-described water pollution could have transboundary effects. However, the most conspicuous effects can be expected in Bulgaria and Romania, the countries that are downstream from Yugoslavia on the Danube River. Floating oil slicks released from bombed refineries cause an obvious threat to these countries.
  • Iron Gates reservoirs: Reservoirs on large rivers, such as Iron Gate I and II on the Danube, are in special danger because the process of sedimentation is increased due to the slowing down of the river’s flow. Iron Gate’s reservoirs therefore act as collectors of all upstream pollution. Dramatic pollution of most rivers in Yugoslavia by heavy metals, pyralene (PCB), oil, etc., will almost certainly affect the neighboring "downstream" countries of Romania, Bulgaria and Ukraine in the coming days, months or years. (P. Polić, 1999)

4.1.7. Others

Military waste:
Due to military operations there are unique forms and categories of waste in Yugoslavia. These include live munitions, graphite bombs, land mines, destroyed military vehicles and aircraft, damaged and contaminated military equipment and infrastructure. Finding, characterising, and safely removing these wastes requires a highly specialised type of work. Unexploded bombs, munitions and land mines still litter the landscape of the war zones. These pose a special threat to the environment and citizens.

4.2. Albania

4.2.1. Water

The water supply for the refugee camps mainly comes from the drinking water system of nearby towns. This has reduced the available quantity of water per capita. One example of how serious the problem can be is the district of Lezhe (Shengjin), where the refugees equal 46.6 percent of the population.

Drinking water sometimes comes from artesian wells, which can only reach potable water standards after a careful treatment process. In Durres, the Spitalle camps use artesian wells for 1,400 tents, which house some 6,000 people. In some other areas, the drinking water is very polluted by oil. In Fier District, wells of up to 7 metres in depth are contaminated by oil field infiltration. This is an old problem that is being exacerbated by the increased population. Camps constructed in the seaside zone are facing the presence of E.coli – an indicator of faecal pollution.

In all of the camps there is no sewage water treatment. There have been several cases when requests have been made to local authorities to be able to discharge sewage collection vehicles in drainage canals (Durres, Spitalle area) or in the fish hatchery ponds (Saranda: Vrina area), instead of in the main sewage collection facility. A situation that is this serious has direct implications for public health.

Lack of sewage water treatment and discharge into inappropriate areas, especially for tented camps, is a major problem. It will remain an important environmental and health related problem in the whole country. In most of the sites, sewage water is disposed in septic holes (not tanks), most of which have reached their maximum capacity and are causing other environmental and health problems, such as a high risk of epidemics, bad smell, soil pollution or infiltration of polluted water into the underground water table. In most cases, it is not possible to adequately connect the camps to nearby town sewage systems – where these systems exist.

Due to the lack of sewage and household water collection systems, there are canals near the camps with very polluted water. The number of camps in such conditions is considerable, and they can be seen all over the country. One specific example is the Islamic Relief Camp in Shkodra.

The general policy has been to construct tented camps along rivers beds or near fresh water lakes. This policy has proven to be a mistake in the case of vulnerable ecosystems or water systems without large water inputs and outputs. For example, in Tirana, Pishina camp, with 2,000 refugees, is located near Tirana park, on the western side of a small artificial lake. The selection of this site is now widely considered to be a mistake. Other camps are built downstream from badly polluting factories. One case is in Elbasan Mjeksi camp, with a population of 3,500, administered by the Turkish army. The military industry upstream pollutes the river and has direct effects on the refugees’ health. Local authorities are looking for ways to bring water into the camp from another irrigation canal.

4.2.2. Air

There are no data available on the effect of air pollution.

4.2.3. Soil

Physical damage:
Considering the small percentage of agricultural land in Albania, one of the main environmental impacts of the construction of refugee tent camps is agricultural soil damage. Some hundreds of hectares of soil have lost their function as arable land because of the concrete and gravel layer used for camp surfacing.

This problem is more pronounced in the districts where massive tent camps have been constructed. In Durres (in the Hamallajt area) camps occupy approximately 100 hectares of agricultural land, which has been covered by concrete and gravel to a depth of 60 centimetres. In Elbasan, a 6 hectare area could require 10-15 years to recover. At the camp in Lezhe (Shengjin), 2,000 cubic metres of gravel have been used to cover 1.3 hectares, an area with a capacity of 612 people.

Organic and chemical soil pollution:
The use of poorly constructed septic holes has led to the soil pollution, especially over time, when the holes overflow and the sewage water runs into drainage canals (Lezhe, Kavaja, Vlore).

4.1.4. Biodiversity/Nature

The impact of the incoming Kosovo refugees on protected areas has been quite visible, especially in the western part of Albania along the Adriatic coast. Some of these areas – such as the Divjaka-Karavasta complex, the only Ramsar site in Albania, Kune Vain Lagoon, Rrushkull reserve and Patok Reserve – are quite vulnerable due to increased human pressure in recent years.

In the first weeks of April, several camps were built within the protected areas (Rrushkull, Divjaka). The international organisations managing these camps did not seek prior permission, or even consider suggestions of local authorities. This has led to a situation where the Rrushkull camp (Durres), covering a surface of 14.5 hectares and administered by the UNHCR, was built within a hunting reserve, where it causes considerable damage to fauna. Some other sites are close to wetlands, within protected areas. One such example is the Kune-Vain reserve, 62 metres above sea level, where construction work on 0.5 hectares was cancelled only because of flooding risks and mosquitoes.

After the initial emergency situation in the early part of the conflict, international agencies sought permission to build camps within protected areas like Dajti National Park, 25 kilometres from Tirana, and Patok. But the Albanian General Directorate of Forestry remained firm about protecting these areas. The doubling of the capacity in some collective centres near the protected zones – like Shëngjin, which went from 400 to 820 residents – has also increased the pressure on the natural values and biodiversity of the surrounding area.

4.2.5. Human Environment/Health

Along with the above-mentioned problem of poor sewage treatment one of the biggest human environment problems is solid waste disposal. The camps and collective centres that are located within town boundaries have their waste disposed in landfills. However, there are districts that do not have landfill facilities (Shijak, Sukth, Manzë, Kruje). In these cases, the disposal is done along the rivers.

The quantity of waste produced by a camp depends not only on the number of refugees, but also on the type of food and other aid distributed to them. In composition, the most significant percentages of waste consist of paper, plastics, and cans. An example of the waste produced in only one district (Shkoder, North Albania) are:

Refugee Facility

Amount of waste

number of refugees

Austrian camp

2,700 kilograms/day

3,000

Caritas

3,280 kg/day

1000

Cigar Enterprise Collective Center

3,300 kg/day

370

DI MODENA camp

400kg/day

435

Islamic Relief Service

720 kg/day

800

L.V.I.A camp

550 kg/ day

620

The situation of camps constructed in village areas are the worst. In districts like Lezhe, Fier and Lushnje, even small camps can produce 250-500 kilograms of waste per day. This waste is disposed just outside of the camps in open fields – and is quite often burned. Medical wastes are usually collected together with other urban waste without a preliminary treatment or special packaging. In some cases, as in a camp managed by the foreign military, hospital waste has reportedly been burned in special incinerators.

4.3. Bulgaria

4.3.1. Water

There are three reference water monitoring stations, and several representative stations, in the regions where the impact of the military strikes on industrial targets can be expected. Routinely, the results of water quality tests are presented at the Ministry of Environment and Waters (MEW) 45-60 days after sampling. But the MEW has arranged that one of the most representative stations on the Danube River begins sampling every day at 10 a.m. and submits data to the National Center for Environment and Sustainable Development of MEW on the same day at 5 p.m. Sampling at this station has not shown any deviation in the values of the measured: pH, dissolved oxygen, electric conductivity, permanent oxygenation, BOD5, ammonia, nitrate , nitrite, phosphate, soluble and non-soluble matter, Mn and Fe. Figures to date have therefore shown no measurable effects on the river from the war.

4.3.2. Air

Starting April 6, 1999, the MEW began to implement an extra programme for air quality monitoring to ensure that any changes in the concentration of air pollutants will be registered and the necessary measures to protect human health will be enacted. Three mobile air monitoring stations were moved to areas along the border with Yugoslavia where pollution from military action could be expected. These places had not been monitored in the past, so the data was compared with data from existing stations in Vidin, Montana and Blagoevgrad. The measured parameters are: non-toxic dust, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxed, hydrogen sulphide, ozone, ammonia, methane and non-methane hydrocarbons. The highest (peak) daily mean values are:

Pollutant

Measured value, milligrams/cubic metre

Limit value, milligrams/cubic metre

Dust (particulate matters)

0.375-0.65

0.25

Lead

<0.001

0.001

Sulphur dioxide SO2

<0.15-0.405

0.15

Nitrogen oxide NOx

<0.1

0.1

Hydrogen sulphide H2S

<0.008-0.0136

0.008

The exceeding of certain parameters is not unusual for these sites, measurements therefore record an ordinary situation from before the military actions began. Only particulates are higher.

Starting from May 13, 1999, measurements were taken for volatile organic compounds – benzene, toluene, xylene, dichlormethane, dichlorethane, tetrachlormethane and tetrachlorethylene. There have not been any reported cases of these substances exceeding the usual limits. For methane and non-methane hydrocarbons, where the limit values are not established, the levels of concentration have been in the ordinary range. The results are reported every day by the regional environmental inspectorates and announced for the media and public in weekly briefings.

Acid rain (pH 4.23) was recorded in the period of May 23-26, 1999, at the reference monitoring station Rozhen. The nature of acid rain makes it difficult to properly identify the source of pollution. But the direction of the wind (north-northwest) indicates the rain was related to the industrial damage in Yugoslavia. Because figures tend to indicate that in Bulgaria there has been no measurable effect on the air quality since the conflict began, the period of acid rain would seem to be a one-off event, possibly caused by attacks on industrial plants.

4.3.3. Soil

The agricultural land along the border with Yugoslavia were already very heavily polluted during the last decades by the operation of the Bor non-ferrous mines in the basin of the border River Timok in Yugoslavia. The samples taken from these places do not point at any excessive pollution, when compared with the samples taken from before the fighting. However, the government took a decision to start an ambitious programme to investigate the soil pollution in 40 sampling sites along a 50 kilometre zone of the border. This investigation should reveal the level of pollution by heavy metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and PCBs in order to develop and implement a land reclamation programme.

4.3.4. Biodiversity/Nature

As shown above, the pollution entering into Danube River (toxic chemicals and oil products) from NATO activities did not yet show up in measurements because of the very high level of dilution. Nevertheless, some pollution is likely (see Yugoslavian section), and it will settle down in the sediments on the river bed and accumulate in the water flora and fauna. In order to investigate these processes, the MEW held an ecological assessment of the Danube River. Starting from the border with Yugoslavia and covering 167 kilometres of the river in the period of May 25-29, 1999, some 14 points were sampled.

The physical and chemical analysis of the water sampling does not exceed the limits for surface waters. Additionally, the gas-chromatography analyses show that the level of concentration of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and volatile organic compounds is less than the norms. The total microbe index, E.coli index, chlorophyll A and biotic index also came up within the norms. The concentration of toxic metals and metalloids in the water did not exceed the limits. Sediments, soil and plants were analysed for the specific radio-nuclides: uranium-238, radium-226, thorium-232, potassium-40, cesium-137, beryllium7, lead-210, etc. No activity of the radio-nuclides over the ordinary level for this region were found.

The level of toxic metals and metalloids in the sediments near the border exceeded the average long-standing levels as follows:

  • lead, three times;
  • copper, 1,400 times;
  • cadmium, 30 times.

Along the investigated route, the concentration falls and at the end of the route the levels are equal to the levels from previous periods. It seems that the main pollution source is the discharges of mines Bor in Yugoslavia and not as a result of the conflict.

Soil sampling from the Kutovo Island (near the border) showed that only copper exceeded the norm – by six times. An excess of nickel content in the fishes was found. However, no dead fish, nor birds were found. There was no other visual damage on the water flora and fauna. It seems apparent that there has been no real impact (short or long-term) on the biodiversity of the country.

4.3.5. Human Environment/Health

Bulgaria did not participate in the military action and received fewer refugees than other countries. Nevertheless, on seven occasions, missiles used in the war in Yugoslavia came down near villages, and once in a residential suburb of Sofia. Sofia has 1.2 million inhabitants. There was no loss of life and only limited damage to buildings.

4.3.6. Others

Starting from May 13, 1999, 17 additional points in the region next to the border with Yugoslavia were added to the National System for Environmental Monitoring. Results have shown that the natural gamma activity was not exceeded. All samples display figures between 0.12-0.19 mSv/h as before the war. The same results (uranium and radio-nuclides) were displayed by the samplers of soil (for radio-nuclides), surface water, drinking water, rain water, lakes and dams, plants and ambient air.

4.4. FYR Macedonia

4.4.1. Water

According to the Ministry of Environment, there is no identified increase in water pollution with chemicals, toxins or radiation during the period of March-June, 1999. The total alpha-radioactivity in water samples from the river Lepenec (Northern FYR Macedonia) during May 24-28, 1999, was 0.083 Bq/l which is 1.5 times lower than the maximum allowed concentration according to the FYR Macedonia standards for drinking water. There are no comparative figures from previous periods, because this is not a regular monitoring point.

Due to the refugee camps, however, there is a high potential and danger for contamination of the biggest drinking water spring in FYR Macedonia, Rasce, which supplies Skopje. The ministerial committee visited two camps, Radusa and Bojane, both located in the first protected zone of the Rasce Spring, which is a karst region. The commitment between the FYR Macedonia Government and the UNHCR was to collect the sewage waters and to transport them to the sewage treatment station near Struga. However, this commitment was only enforced between May 10-17, 1999, with a total of 90 cubic metres of wastewater. After that, the treatment station did not receive any water for treatment, while it was obvious that sewage water from the Bojane camp was taken away every three days. Since then, on June 7, 1999, the state environmental inspectorate found private individuals dumping wastewater into the Vardar River, near the camp. The Ministry of Environment prepared immediate recommendations to the government, such as dislocation of both refugee camps, in order to protect anticipated long-term pollution of the Rasce spring and to build sewage treatment stations for both villages Radusa and Bojane. The costs of these treatment stations are estimated at USD 1.8-2 million.

Water taken from Bojane and Radusa camps, which is used for the needs of the refugees, was analysed for the presence of micro-biological agents. According to the medical teams who work in the camps, this water should only be used for washing or bathing, not drinking water. The results of the analyses show no presence of any group of bacteria or any kind of micro-biological contamination, so that the water sampled from the Bojane and Radusa camps actually met the requirements for drinking water. Water taken from Skopje water pipes also showed negative results on micro-biological contamination. The presence of chlorine is 0.1 milligrams per litre, which is within the frame of the maximum allowed levels (0.2-0.5 mg/l).

However, taking into consideration the fact that the camps are very near to the Rasce spring, there is still reason to be concerned about the possibility of contamination of underground water in the future. Negative results on micro-biological testing does not necessarily mean that the water is clean and drinkable. If there are septic holes nearby, contamination of underground water can occur, even if chlorine is applied. This would be indicated by the presence of ammonia and nitrites in the water. It is still too early to notice any kind of contamination. One possible remedy to the situation might be to require obligatory monitoring of underground waters in the area of Rasce.

4.4.2. Air

The National Institute for Health Protection (NIHP) performed analyses of the alpha-radioactivity in the air in FYR Macedonia, during the month of April, 1999. Samples were analyzed in Bulgaria, as FYR Macedonia does not have sophisticated equipment for this type of measurement. The director of the NIHP announced that the analyses discovered up to eight times higher concentration of alpha-radioactivity in the air in FYR Macedonia, than the usual concentration. This increased level is still within the maximum allowed concentration, and the NIHP director said the measurement simply means that this parameter needs to be continually monitored.

The measurements of other types of radioactivity were conducted by several Macedonian institutes. The intensity of the absorbed dose of outreach gamma radiation during April 20-June 3, 1999, was between 0.08 – 0.17 mG/h, which is 3-6 times lower than the maximum allowed concentration. The specific beta-radioactivity in the air during April-May 1999 average 4.1 mBq/m3 in Skopje and 3.23 mBq/m in Gevgelija, which is 50 times lower than the maximum allowable concentration. The maximum allowable concentration standards for air radiation used those of the European Union, because FYR Macedonia has not developed its own standards yet. The state environmental inspector has not provided more detailed information regarding the alpha-radiation, which is possibly the most important, because that is the radiation that comes from depleted uranium weapons. Furthermore, it is hard to fully appreciated the results of the measures that were announced, because FYR Macedonia does not have permanent monitoring of the radioactivity, so the above-mentioned results cannot be compared with previous years. The results of radioactivity tests mentioned above are available to the public.

FYR Macedonia does not have sophisticated equipment in any of its institutes for measuring the concentration of chemical pollutants in the air. Competent experts from the monitoring institutes in FYR Macedonia, chemists and physicians are concerned that potential air pollution, with highly toxic and dangerous pollutants, released from the chemical and petroleum industrial complexes in Yugoslavia, could easily come towards the country. There is major concern about the potential concentrations of dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls, whose allowable air concentration should be 0 according to EU standards.

On June 2, the Ministry of Environment recommended to the government that the state budget include funding of Dinar 3,000,000 (DM 94,000), for the measurements conducted during April and May, and Dinar 1,000,000 (DM 32,000) for monthly needs. The ministry also recommended that these types of measurements should continue for 12 months after the day of cessation of military activities in Yugoslavia.

4.4.3. Soil

At this point, there are no signs of any kind of pollution of the soil. State monitoring institutions have not announced any measurements, nor findings of pollution, as a result of the military conflict in Yugoslavia.

4.4.4. Biodiversity/Nature

The Agency for Environment of FYR Macedonia has researched the changes in the populations of biological species in the natural reserves in FYR Macedonia. The last report from March 31, 1999, states that there are increased numbers of some population of rare birds in the regions of Mariovo, Tikves, Demir Kapija and Pelagonija Valley. The following findings were identified:
  • 64 specimens of the bird neophron pernopterus, a 100 percent increase from the previous years;
  • four specimens of aquila heliaca;
  • 68 specimens of gips fulvus, a 30 percent increase;
  • two nests of milvus migrans, which is a sign of a new population;
  • one pair of ciconia nigra, which is in process of nesting;
  • three specimens of buteo buteo;
  • and two specimens of cirkactus gallikus.
There are also findings of an increased number of boars and three bears.

The assumption is that these species have moved from Kosovo as a result of disturbances from the military activities.

The Fund for Environment of FYR Macedonia has immediately transferred Dinar 20,000 to the local ecological association from Kavadarci to gather food and bring it to the preserve. The Agency for Environment of FYR Macedonia has also developed a feasibility study for complete management of the natural preserve "Tikves," where most of the new inhabitants arrived, including monitoring, watching, protection, feeding, etc. The implementation of this study will cost approximately DM 60,000 DEM.

4.4.5. Human Environment/Health

There is an increased number of patients in the medical centres and hospitals in Skopje, Kumanovo, Tetovo, Kichevo, Debar and Struga, as a result of the increased population in FYR Macedonia. No one from the Health Institutions was able to give the precise numbers of increased need for medical assistance. However, it is known that capacities are almost fully utilised. Most of the health problems that appear in the refugee camps are solved in the camps’ own medical centres and only serious cases are transferred to hospitals. The latest data says that 152,340 refugees are located in households, and they receive the basic health control in existing medical centres/hospitals.

Environmental Effects from Refugee Camps:
The REC conducted a study in two refugee camps, Radusa and Bojane, to assess their possible environmental impacts. Both camps are located in rural areas and were prepared immediately after the first refugees came from Kosovo to Macedonia.

The camps were visited on June 10, 1999. They are located very close to the Macedonian capital of Skopje. The number of refugees at Radusa is 1,800 and in Bojane is 3,500. The Albanian refugees stay in textile tents (usually one family per tent). The organisational logistic of the camps is very good. According to medical teams at both camps, the human health status is good and epidemiological status is normal. A 24-hour-a-day human health control system is in operation at both camps and they are staffed by Macedonian and international medical teams who can handle more than the capacity of the camps.

The drinking water supply system is well organised. Sanitary inspectors and the Republic Health Institute of Skopje, regularly conduct the water quality analyses. According to their reports the drinking water quality is good. The researchers also took samples from the drinking water for analysis.

Sewage waters (effluents) are connected to the sewage system of the Radusa village (at Radusa camp) and collected by pumps in Bojane, by a public company called Komunalec, for treatment. At both camps there is no visible discharge to the River Vardar or possible influence of sewage to the underground waters. Komunalec organises solid waste management and after collection from the refuse bins, solid waste is disposed on Drisla landfill, near Skopje. Komunalec does not collect the waste out of properly located cans. Researchers saw many places with a lot of litter and waste in Bojane Camp and around its perimeter. Refugees were also apparently burning waste paper in cooking fires.

Other observations include alterations to the natural landscape, which may have an effect on the local environment. Forests in the surrounding area are being cut for fuel, but there is no official information about this activity.

4.4.6. Others

Citizens’ complaints mostly concern the increased noise coming from NATO vehicles, which mostly drive in night-time hours. Also, military airplanes are producing very high levels of noise, and the utilisation of Skopje Airport increased by 10 times. There are no official measurements of the increased decibel levels in Macedonia.

4.5. Romania

4.5.1. Water

Measurements from the Romanian stretch of the Danube River yielded the following results:
  • From 31-64 organic micro-pollutants are present, but they do not exceed the maximum allowable concentration.
  • Oil was found in the Danube (aromatic hydrocarbons), but amounts did not exceed the maximum allowable concentration.
  • Phenols have frequently exceeded the maximum allowable concentration.
  • Heavy metals, such as copper, chromium, cadmium and lead have twice exceeded the maximum allowable concentration.
No massive mortalities of aquatic organisms have been reported yet, but it is possible that, due to chronic toxicity and bio-accumulation, the effects will only show much later.

4.5.2. Air

For air the following measurements were made:
  • In the period between April 18-26, 1999, in Timis county, the maximum allowable concentrations for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ammonia were exceeded 5-10 times.
  • As a consequence of the bombing of the Prahovo oil terminal on the Danube, on May 15, 1999, a cloud of smoke was generated that covered about 10-15 square kilometres of Romania's territory.
  • On the May 12, 1999, in Caras Severin County, near the village of Berliste, acid rains were reported (pH=5.4), and on the May 15, 1999, acid rains were reported near the village of Gradinari (pH= 4.7). The acid rains in this area appear to be a direct consequence of the atmospheric pollution generated by the fires caused by bombing.
  • The Environmental Protection Agency in Oradea reported an increased level of acid rain compared to the same period before the war.
  • Rains with a pH of 5.7 – a slight decrease – was registered on the June 1, 1999by the Arad County Environmental Protection Agency.
  • The Timis County Environmental Protection Agency reported acid rains of pH=5.1 in Moravita on May 21, 1999. In this county there have also been reports from the population that vegetation is severely affected, but these reports were not confirmed by the local EPA. The EPA considers that these effects are due to the general level of pollution combined with excessive heat during this period.

4.5.3. Soil

There were no reports of impact on soil that could be confirmed by reliable sources.

4.5.4. Biodiversity/Nature

No reports of impact on biodiversity/nature were reported.

4.5.5. Human Environment/Health

There is only one report regarding effects on human health: the inhabitants of one of the border police checkpoints have reported respiratory problems (cough, suffocation, irritation) apparently due to air pollution.

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